Fork and Exec
New processes are created by the two related interfaces fork and exec.
Fork
When you come to metaphorical "fork in the road" you generally have two options to take, and your decision effects your future. Computer programs reach this fork in the road when they hit the fork() system call.
At this point, the operating system will create a new process that is exactly the same as the parent process. This means all the state that was talked about previously is copied, including open files, register state and all memory allocations, which includes the program code.
The return value from the system call is the only way the process can determine if it was the existing process or a new one. The return value to the parent process will be the Process ID (PID) of the child, whilst the child will get a return value of 0.
At this point, we say the process has forked and we have the parent-child relationship as described above.
Exec
Forking provides a way for an existing process to start a new one, but what about the case where the new process is not part of the same program as parent process? This is the case in the shell; when a user starts a command it needs to run in a new process, but it is unrelated to the shell.
This is where the exec system call comes into play. exec will replace the contents of the currently running process with the information from a program binary.
Thus the process the shell follows when launching a new program is to firstly fork, creating a new process, and then exec (i.e. load into memory and execute) the program binary it is supposed to run.
How Linux actually handles fork and exec
clone
In the kernel, fork is actually implemented by a clone system call. This clone interfaces effectively provides a level of abstraction in how the Linux kernel can create processes.
clone allows you to explicitly specify which parts of the new process are copied into the new process, and which parts are shared between the two processes. This may seem a bit strange at first, but allows us to easily implement threads with one very simple interface.
Threads
While fork copies all of the attributes we mentioned above, imagine if everything was copied for the new process except for the memory. This means the parent and child share the same memory, which includes program code and data.
This hybrid child is called a thread. Threads have a number of advantages over where you might use fork
Separate processes can not see each others memory. They can only communicate with each other via other system calls.
Threads however, share the same memory. So you have the advantage of multiple processes, with the expense of having to use system calls to communicate between them.
The problem that this raises is that threads can very easily step on each others toes. One thread might increment a variable, and another may decrease it without informing the first thread. These type of problems are called concurrency problems and they are many and varied.
To help with this, there are userspace libraries that help programmers work with threads properly. The most common one is called POSIX threads or, as it more commonly referred to pthreads
Switching processes is quite expensive, and one of the major expenses is keeping track of what memory each process is using. By sharing the memory this overhead is avoided and performance can be significantly increased.
There are many different ways to implement threads. On the one hand, a userspace implementation could implement threads within a process without the kernel having any idea about it. The threads all look like they are running in a single process to the kernel.
This is suboptimal mainly because the kernel is being withheld information about what is running in the system. It is the kernels job to make sure that the system resources are utilised in the best way possible, and if what the kernel thinks is a single process is actually running multiple threads it may make suboptimal decisions.
Thus the other method is that the kernel has full knowledge of the thread. Under Linux, this is established by making all processes able to share resources via the clone system call. Each thread still has associated kernel resources, so the kernel can take it into account when doing resource allocations.
Other operating systems have a hybrid method, where some threads can be specified to run in userspace only ("hidden" from the kernel) and others might be a light weight process, a similar indication to the kernel that the processes is part of a thread group.
Copy on write
As we mentioned, copying the entire memory of one process to another when fork is called is an expensive operation.
One optimisation is called copy on write. This means that similar to threads above, the memory is actually shared, rather than copied, between the two processes when fork is called. If the processes are only going to be reading the memory, then actually copying the data is unnecessary.
However, when a process writes to it's memory, it needs to be a private copy that is not shared. As the name suggests, copy on write optimises this by only doing the actual copy of the memory at the point when it is written to.
Copy on write also has a big advantage for exec. Since exec will simply be overwriting all the memory with the new program, actually copying the memory would waste a lot of time. Copy on write saves us actually doing the copy.
The init process
We discussed the overall goal of the init process previously, and we are now in a position to understand how it works.
On boot the kernel starts the init process, which then forks and execs the systems boot scripts. These fork and exec more programs, eventually ending up forking a login process.
The other job of the init process is "reaping". When a process calls exit with a return code, the parent usually wants to check this code to see if the child exited correctly or not.
However, this exit code is part of the process which has just called exit. So the process is "dead" (e.g. not running) but still needs to stay around until the return code is collected. A process in this state is called a zombie (the traits of which you can contrast with a mystical zombie!)
A process stays as a zombie until the parent collects the return code with the wait call. However, if the parent exits before collecting this return code, the zombie process is still around, waiting aimlessly to give it's status to someone.
In this case, the zombie child will be reparented to the init process which has a special handler that reaps the return value. Thus the process is finally free and can the descriptor can be removed from the kernels process table.
Zombie example
Example 5-3. Zombie example process
$ cat zombie.c
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
pid_t pid;
printf("parent : %d\n", getpid());
pid = fork();
if (pid == 0) {
printf("child : %d\n", getpid());
sleep(2);
printf("child exit\n");
exit(1);
}
/* in parent */
while (1)
{
sleep(1);
}
}
ianw@lime:~$ ps ax | grep [z]ombie
16168 pts/9 S 0:00 ./zombie
16169 pts/9 Z 0:00 [zombie] <defunct>Above we create a zombie process. The parent process will sleep forever, whilst the child will exit after a few seconds.
Below the code you can see the results of running the program. The parent process (16168) is in state S for sleep (as we expect) and the child is in state Z for zombie. The ps output also tells us that the process is defunct in the process description.[1]